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    • br AMPK as a druggable

    2023-04-17


    AMPK as a druggable target AMPK signaling has attracted considerable attention within the past decades, owing to the capacity of pharmacological compounds (e.g., 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside [AICAR] and metformin) or natural compounds (e.g., resveratrol) to activate AMPK indirectly via altered cellular energy charge or accumulation of AMP analogs inside Ciclopirox ethanolamine [1]. However, the development and use of indirect AMPK activators acting via inhibition of mitochondrial complex I is not recommended due to the potential systemic toxicity and life-threatening lactate acidosis risk, as recently reported for the indirect AMPK activator R118 [69], [70]. In addition, since some of the effects of indirect activators could be mediated through off-target effects independently of AMPK activation [71], [72], intense interest has been focused on the development of more specific AMPK activators by using relevant screening systems for identifying compounds that interact directly to activate the AMPK heterotrimeric complex [73], [74]. In 2006, high-throughput screen (HTS) efforts drove the discovery of the first non-nucleotide direct small molecule AMPK activator, A-592107, optimized to generate the more potent compound A-769662 [75] (Fig. 3), demonstrating that AMPK activation with non-nucleotide ligands is possible. This important breakthrough in AMPK research leads to the development of more specific and potent small molecule AMPK activators and an increasing collection of compounds with diverse chemical structures is now available from the patent and published literature [76], [77], [78], [79] (Fig. 3). Recent crystallographic studies of AMPK have provided molecular insights into the mechanism and site of action for most of these compounds [80], [81], [82], [83]. The interface between the GBD and the small lobe of the α-KD forms a discrete pocket that has been recently identified as a new allosteric binding site, referred to as the allosteric drug and metabolite (ADaM) site [82]. The ADaM site is depicted as an “orphan” allosteric site since no endogenous AMPK ligand has been identified yet. This site appears to be necessary to promote AMPKα-Thr172 phosphorylation induced by agents that increase cellular AMP/ADP [84] and thus, represents an attractive site for the pharmacological modulation of AMPK activity. Indeed, it is also accessible to various synthetic activators derived from HTS, including A-769662 and 991 [81], [82] (Fig. 3), and the natural product salicylate [81]. Reports of alternative binding sites include the γ subunit with compounds identified after screening an AMP mimetic library [80], [85] (Fig. 3).
    Small molecule AMPK activators Here, we only illuminated some representative compounds confirmed to directly influence AMPK activity (Fig. 3). These small molecules directly bind to specific sites on the AMPK heterotrimeric complex. This binding induces conformational changes leading to AMPK activation through multiple modalities such as allosteric modulation, increase in AMPKα-Thr172 phosphorylation, protection against Thr172 dephosphorylation or a combination of these mechanisms.
    Challenges to small AMPK activators The past decade witnessed successful development of therapeutically useful small molecule direct AMPK activators, powered by tremendous progress in both academic and industrial settings. Existing results to date offer encouragement to further pursue research on AMPK as a drug target for the treatment of diseases associated with metabolic syndrome [107], [108], [111]. However, while using small molecule AMPK activators to treat a number of human pathologies appears now feasible, some challenging questions might serve as directions for future development of subtype- or tissue-selective AMPK activators and for improving therapeutic applicability. First, a central challenge is the complexity related to the distinct combinations of the AMPK subunit isoforms in different tissues and species with distinct regulatory properties and functions. Characterization of the distribution of AMPK heterotrimeric complexes in humans and relevant preclinical models appears critical for both therapeutic and drug discovery purposes. Another important determinant of AMPK action is the subcellular localization of the different isoform combinations. Indeed, there is emerging evidence showing that AMPK isoform selectivity to specific substrates comes from their distinct subcellular localizations, rather than their intrinsic specificity [120]. In addition, localization of AMPK at cellular organelle membranes might also play a role in sensitizing AMPK to allosteric ligands [47]. Thus, more knowledge needs to be gained to further understand the multifaceted regulation and distinct function of AMPK complexes.