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    • Oxidative stress results from the disequilibrium between lev

    2022-03-12

    Oxidative stress results from the disequilibrium between levels of prooxidant molecules produced and the ability of a biological system to detoxify and neutralize the reactive molecules [14]. OS is a chronic, self-perpetuating state of damage to cells and increased inflammation resulting from the corresponding immune response [27], [43]. Glyoxalase pathway dysfunction can result in the accumulation of MG in cells [3]. The build up of MG has a direct link to the propagation of OS and inflammation, and is an influencing factor in neurodegenerative disease [8], [23], [48] The main source of damage from OS is ROS mediated inflammation [43]. ROS and free radicals have unpaired electrons, and act as nucleophiles to attack macromolecules. The donor molecule gives its electrons to ROS [14]. The molecules attacked by ROS have structural modifications, which causes the molecules to have limited or no function [5]. Under normal conditions, ROS are used in cell signaling and defense against pathogens by macrophages; their damaging effects are caused when they have accumulated past a normal amount [10]. Glyoxalase cycle dysfunction is one perpetrator to blame for the increased ROS production. AGEs can be formed from modified proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids [59]. Structural changes can reduce biological activity of macromolecules, and are often identified as misfolded or damaged and labeled for destruction [59], [60]. Nucleic Sulbactam (and mtDNA) can undergo strand breaks, impaired repair mechanisms, and permanent mutations [61]. Lipids are easily oxidizable, and membranes, being rich in lipids, are prone to these modifications [43]. Research has shown a link between MG accumulation, glyoxalase system activity, and disease [21]. Glyoxalase activity is differentially expressed based on cell type and state. Glyoxalase activity has found to increase with age, but subjects over 50 years old exhibit a decline in glyoxalase I [62]. The low glo 1 activity in aging leads to a higher level of dicarbonyl compounds, and it was also discovered that decreasing glo 1 levels correlated with an accumulation of AGEs [35]. Elevated levels of MG leads to inflammation, OS, apoptosis, and DNA damage [40], [63] It has been shown the pathological hallmarks of AD and PD are colocalized to AGEs [41], [63], [64]. In a comparison of glyoxalase activity between healthy and AD brain tissue, the AD group had a significantly lowered glo 1 activity, at the mRNA and protein level [35]. MG is highly reactive and also cytotoxic. MG inhibits cell growth, and induces cell death at higher concentrations [65]. MG prevented proper hippocampal neurogenesis, adversely impacting neural differentiation, survival, and proliferation, it is believed due to reduced hippocampal BDNF levels [66]. MG concentration can act as a biomarker of severity of disease [23]. AD patients were found to have increased MG in CSF compared to healthy aged controls [64].
    Aging Aging is a progressive decline in physiological and metabolic functions of an organism [10]. The process is characterized by chronic, low level inflammation that progresses over time. The rate of aging can be accelerated and influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Age is also the biggest risk factor for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's [19]. Age is correlated with an increase in ROS formation, oxidized proteins and lipids, and apoptosis [14]. Also, during normal aging OS will increase while glutathione activity decreases. Decreasing glo 1 levels are strongly correlated with increasing levels of AGEs, and glo 1 levels drop in accordance to age [16]. The extent of damages can only be viewed posthumously, requiring the determination of disease progression through biomarkers of oxidative stress and disease. Markers denoting oxidized substrates, nuclear abnormalities are directly related to the extent and progression of aging [15].
    Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease is the most common neurodegenerative disorder, and the leading cause of dementia in the elderly [67]. It is a multifactorial disease characterized by progressive neural loss of the hippocampus and cortex, memory and learning impairment, and changes in behavior and personality [19], [68]. It has pathogenic hallmarks of beta amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) [69]. Cognitive impairment reflects synapse loss in dentate gyrus of hippocampus, and neuron loss in frontal and parietal lobe of cortex [70], [71], [72]