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  • In the present study participants reported

    2022-08-12

    In the present study, participants reported a significant decrease in symptoms of anxiety and depression along with other symptoms of psychological distress and PTSD. These results are in agreement with a study in which hospitalized patients diagnosed with psychotic and mood disorders demonstrated statistically significant reductions in anxiety after treatment with AAT [46]. A small pilot study demonstrated positive physiological and psychological responses in children who underwent a surgical procedure and were exposed to therapy dogs as part of their overall treatment plan [47]. The results of the present study are also consistent with the findings of another study in which residents of a long-term care facility reported improved quality of life indicators, specifically, decreased feelings of depression, following visitation with dogs as a component of their overall therapeutic treatment plan [48]. The U.S. Army Medical Department also published some very limited data which suggests AAT could benefit wounded warriors enrolled in an occupational therapy life skills program and supports the need for further research in the area of AAT as an adjunct therapy for veterans with PTSD and other traumatic injuries, including traumatic Scrambled 10Panx injury [49]. The results of the present study showed an effect of EAAT on HR, specifically on the day when the veterans were more stationary and were primarily engaged in grooming and petting the horses, versus actively leading and walking around. This result is consistent with the literature. One study demonstrated decreased HR when participants touched or talked to a dog [50]. Another study demonstrated decreased HR in hospitalized children who were exposed to pet therapy [51], and another finding showed decreased HR in people who petted their own dog [52]. One study also reported decreased blood pressure levels while participants were petting a dog [50]. This result conflicts with the results of the present study, which did not find an effect on blood pressure in veterans who participated in EAAT. One possible reason for this discrepancy could be the fact that veterans in the present study were standing and often moving around with the horses, whereas participants in the other study were likely much less mobile and may have been sitting down [50]. There was no effect on respiration rate demonstrated in the present study. Research on this topic has yet to yield any consistent findings with regard to the effect of EAAT on respiration rate of participants. One report concluded significant decreases in respiratory rate in hospitalized patients who were exposed to a pet therapy intervention, but there is no published data to our knowledge regarding the effects of equine therapy on respiratory rate in humans [52]. Overall, the results of the present study, which demonstrate improvement in some PTSD symptoms and limited HR reduction in participants, are consistent with the literature that suggests a wide range of potential physiological and psychological benefits to people who participate in animal-assisted interventions [9].
    Conclusion
    Acknowledgments
    Introduction Glutamate is the most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and its level is very low under normal conditions [1,2]. The maintenance of low glutamate levels in the brain mainly depends on its constant transport by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs), which are the primary subclass of glutamate transporters. In addition to uptake by the presynaptic membrane or astrocytes that are wrapped around the synapse [3], the EAATs on abluminal endothelial membranes, mainly including GLAST and GLT-1, constantly transport glutamate in the cerebral extracellular fluid into endothelial cells and then into the blood through facilitated transport [4,5], thus playing an irreplaceable role in maintaining the homeostasis of brain glutamate levels. In addition to the increased release and decreased re-uptake of glutamate by nerve cells after acute brain injury, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke [6,7], dysfunction of endothelial EAATs or even reverse transport may be another important factor contributing to the rapid increase in glutamate levels in the brain [8]. However, few studies have focused on the causes and regulatory mechanisms underlying the changes in the function of endothelial EAATs, and specific mechanisms have rarely been reported.