Second due in large part

Second, due in large part to data limitations, few studies have investigated ancestral health disparities among second-generation black immigrants, which conceals the increasing heterogeneity of the second-generation black immigrant population. Immigrants from the Caribbean have historically comprised the overwhelming majority of the flow (and stock) of black immigrants to the United States. Since the year 2000, however, the number of black immigrants arriving from Africa has surpassed the number of arrivals from the Caribbean (Anderson, 2015), suggesting that the fraction of second-generation black immigrants of African ancestry is likely to increase significantly in the coming decades. Among first-generation immigrants, pre-migration smoking norms vary considerably across the primary source countries (Bilano et al., 2015; Zhao, Palipudi, Ramanandraibe & Asma, 2016). Thus, the process of social MaxiPost into U.S. smoking behavior might vary considerably among second-generation immigrants depending on their parents’ place of birth (Leung, 2014). Understanding how smoking patterns vary by generational status among blacks by regions of origin/ancestry could also provide valuable insights into how the health behaviors and health outcomes of the black population are likely to evolve in the coming decades.
Background A large literature has documented that some immigrant subgroups have more favorable health and mortality profiles, particularly upon arrival in the country, than their U.S.-born counterparts (Elo, Mehta, & Huang, 2011; Hamilton, 2014; Hamilton & Hummer, 2011; Singh & Siahpush, 2002). Black immigrants\' mortality advantage is particularly striking.Singh and Siahpush (2002) showed that black immigrants have a lower risk of all-cause mortality compared to both U.S.-born blacks and non-blacks, regardless of nativity. These health and mortality advantages, however, tend to decline as immigrants\' tenure of U.S. residence increases; a process termed the “healthy immigrant effect” (HIE). Prior research has suggested that selective migration (e.g., individuals with the best health profiles in the origin country are more likely to move to the United States) and immigrant cultural practices vitamins promote good health behaviors play a significant role in producing immigrants’ initial health advantage (Jasso, Massey, Rosenzweig & Smith, 2005). Researchers have argued that changes in health behaviors, particularly smoking patterns, are one of the primary factors that generate the decline in immigrants’ health as their tenure of U.S. residence increases (Gorman, Lariscy, & Kaushik, 2014; Kuerban, 2016; Siahpush et al., 2009). Singh and Siahpush (2002) showed that while newly arrived immigrants were 52 percent less likely to smoke compared to their U.S.-born counterparts, these nativity advantages decreased to 32 and 18 percent, respectively, for those residing in the United States for 10–15 and more than 15 years.
Data, measures, and methods
Methods
Results Table 1 provides detailed descriptive statistics for the entire sample. Columns 1 and 2 present summary statistics for foreign-born blacks who either migrated after age 13 or up to age 13 (including age 13), respectively. Columns 3 and 4 show summary statistics for second-generation black immigrants with two or one foreign-born parent(s), respectively. Finally, Column 5 shows summary statistics for third/higher generation individuals. As expected, Table 1 indicates that third/higher generation blacks (Column 5) have the highest proportion of current smokers (0.212). First-generation immigrants (those born outside of the United States) have the lowest proportion of current smokers, with little difference between those who migrated at or prior to age 13 (0.080) and those who migrated after age 13 (0.074). Column 3 shows that the proportion of second-generation black immigrants with two foreign-born parents who report being a current smoker (0.135) is higher than the proportion of first-generation immigrants who are smokers. The proportion of smokers among second-generation individuals with only one foreign-born parent, however, is the same as that of the third/higher generation (0.212).