Of particular relevance here is

Of particular relevance here is the notion of “illusory recovery” (Scarborough and Dobrich, 1990), which suggests that although LTs may catch up in some language areas, their underlying language impairment results in weaknesses in other aspects of language learning later in their development. Another factor accounting for the similar MMR patterns among groups may be the stimuli used in our study. The standard/i2/and deviant/i3/are both real Mandarin Chinese words that appear with high frequency (7688 and 2412 per million, respectively). Although word frequency seems to be a relatively insignificant factor driving MMN enhancement (Pulvermuller et al., 2001; Pulvermuller et al., 2004), the unexpected delayed latency of MMRs at 6 years of age suggests that children might also process lexical meanings of the two stimuli instead of processing the acoustic-phonetic components, which could lead to the cross-group similarities that we observed. Future studies using pseudowords with pitch contours similar to lexical tones could clarify this concern.
Introduction Behavioral inhibition (BI) is a biologically-based temperament characterized by fear and avoidance in response to novelty. Coll et al. (1984) first coined the term BI to describe children initially, assessed at age two, who were extremely shy and withdrawn when experiencing novel situations or interacting with unfamiliar people. Longitudinal studies have noted a relatively stable profile of BI across childhood (see Clauss and Blackford, 2012; for review). As behaviorally inhibited children mature, they Q-VD(OMe)-OPh cost can increasingly fear social circumstances and can display poorly regulated social behavior, which potentially leads to peer rejection, internalizing problems, and poor social competence (Fox et al., 2005; Henderson et al., 2015). Children with stable and extreme BI are more likely to develop anxiety disorders (Fox and Kalin, 2014; Fox and Pine, 2012; Pérez-Edgar and Fox, 2005). Specifically, BI is one of the strongest individual risk factors for the development of social anxiety disorder (Clauss and Blackford, 2012). Indeed, the pattern of anxious behaviors, social withdrawal, and negative affect observed in children with BI often parallels the set of symptoms used to diagnose anxiety disorders (Pérez-Edgar and Guyer, 2014). Anxiety, however, is additionally characterized by chronic impairment in functioning and atypical interpretation of and reaction to social threats. Thus, anxiety may represent an extreme end of an individual differences spectrum that is rooted in temperament (McNaughton and Corr, 2004; Pérez-Edgar and Guyer, 2014). Most children with BI, however, do not develop anxiety disorders, prompting efforts to delineate specific mechanisms that underlie the heterogeneity in risk and resilience. One factor that may moderate the stability of BI, as well as the association between BI and anxiety, is attention bias to threat. In a longitudinal study by Pérez-Edgar et al. (2011), children with a BI profile at age 2–3 years exhibited social withdrawal by age 5. Importantly, this relation was moderated by attention bias, such that the relation from BI to social withdrawal was only significant in children who displayed a threat bias. White et al. (2016, in press) also showed that BI assessed during toddlerhood was associated with anxiety most strongly for children who exhibited a concurrent threat bias at age 7. However, there was no predictive relation between attention bias at age 5 and anxiety at age 7. Pérez-Edgar et al. (2010) found that adolescents with a history of BI during childhood showed increased levels of threat bias at age 15. Threat bias again moderated the trajectory of childhood BI to concurrent social withdrawal. Taken together, the link between BI and anxiety-related outcomes may be sustained by displays of heightened attention biases toward threat, in line with research indicating that threat bias plays a role in the emergence and maintenance of anxiety (Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Linetzky et al., 2015).